Earth, Science, and Nonscience - How it works



Aristotle's Four Causes

Though the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C. ) exerted a negative influence on numerous aspects of what became known as the physical sciences (astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the earth sciences), he is still rightly regarded as one of the greatest thinkers of the Western world. Among his contributions to thought was the identification of four causes, or four approaches to the question of how and why something exists as it does.

In Aristotle's system, which developed from ideas of causation put forward by his predecessors, the most basic of explanations is the material cause, or the substance of which a thing is made. In a house, for instance, the wood and other building materials would be the material cause. The builders themselves are the efficient cause, or the forces that shaped the house. Morecomplex than these is a third variety of cause-effect relationship, the formal cause —that is, the design or blueprint on which something is modeled.

The first three Aristotelian causes provide a pathway for explaining how; the fourth and last cause approaches the much more challenging question of why. This is the final cause, or the reason why a thing exists at all—in other words, the purpose for which it was made. Even in the case of the house, this is a somewhat complicated matter. A house exists, of course, to provide a dwelling for its occupants, but general contractors would not initiate the building process if they did not expect to make a profit, nor would the subcontractors and laborers continue to work on it if they did not earn an income from the project.

Religion, Science, and Earth

The matter of final cause is almost unimaginably more complex when applied to Earth rather than to a house. The question "Why does Earth exist?" or "What is the ultimate reason for Earth's existence?" is not really a topic for science at all, but rather for theology and philosophy. Nor do the answers provided by religion and philosophical beliefs qualify as answers in the same sense that workable scientific theories do.

There has always been a degree of tension between religion and the sciences, and nowhere has this been more apparent than in the earth sciences. As will be discussed later in this essay, most early theories concerning Earth's structure and development were religious in origin, and even some modern explanations have theological roots. Certainly there is nothing wrong with a

ENGRAVING AFTER A MARBLE BUST OF ARISTOTLE. (Library of Congress.)
E NGRAVING AFTER A MARBLE BUST OF A RISTOTLE . (
Library of Congress
.)
scientist having religious beliefs, as long as those beliefs do not provide a filter for all data. If they do, the theologically minded scientist becomes rather like a mathematician attempting to solve a problem on the basis of love rather than reason. Most people would agree that love is higher and greater than mathematics; nonetheless, it has absolutely no bearing on the subject.

SCIENTIFIC ANSWERS AND THE SEARCH FOR A DESIGNER.

The third, or formal, cause is less fraught with problems than the final cause when applied to the study of Earth, yet it also illustrates the challenges inherent in keeping science and theology separate. Does Earth have a "design," or blueprint? The answer is yes, no, and maybe. Yes, Earth has a design in the sense that there is an order and a balance between its components, a subject discussed elsewhere with reference to the different spheres (geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere). The physical evidence, however, tends to suggest a concept of design quite different from the theistic notion of a deity who acts as creator.

Consider, for example, the ability of an animal to alter its appearance as a means of blending in with its environment, to ward off predators, to disguise itself while preying upon other animals, or for some other purpose. On the one hand, this seems like an example of conscious design by a loving creator, but as Charles Darwin (1809-1882) showed, it may simply be a matter of adaptability. According to Darwin, members of species unable to alter their appearance died out, leading to the dominance of those who could camouflage themselves.

In fact, science is not really capable of addressing the matter of a Designer (i.e., God), and thus, for scientists, the question of a deity's role in nature is simply irrelevant. This is not because scientists are necessarily atheists (many are and have been dedicated men and women of faith) but because the concept of a deity simply adds an unnecessary step to scientific analysis.

This is in line with Ockham's razor, a principle introduced by the medieval English philosopher William of Ockham ( ca. 1285?-1349). According to Ockham, "entities must not be unnecessarily multiplied." In other words, in analyzing any phenomenon, one should seek the simplest and most straightforward explanation. Scientists are concerned with hard data, such as the evidence obtained from rock strata. The application of theological ideas in such situations would at best confuse and complicate the process of scientific analysis.

THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN.

A few years before Ockham, the Italian philosopher Thomas Aquinas (1224 or 1225-1274) introduced a philosophical position known as the "argument from design." According to Aquinas, whose idea has been embraced by many up to the present day, the order and symmetry in nature indicate the existence of God. Some philosophers have conceded that this order does indeed indicate the existence of a god, though not necessarily the God of Christianity. Science, however, cannot afford to go even that far: where spiritual matters are concerned, science must be neutral.

Does any of this disprove the existence of God? Absolutely not. Note that science must be neutral, not in opposition, where spiritual matters are concerned. Indeed, one could not disprove God's existence scientifically if one wanted to do so; to return to the analogy given earlier, such an endeavor would be akin to using mathematics to disprove the existence of love. Religious matters are simply beyond the scope of science, and to use science against religion is as misinformed a position as its opposite.

SCIENCE AND THE FIRST TWO CAUSES.

To return to Aristotle's causes, let us briefly consider the material and efficient cause as applied to the subject of Earth. These are much simpler matters than formal and final cause, and science is clearly able to address them. An understanding of Earth's material cause—that is, its physical substance—requires a brief examination of the chemical elements. The elements are primarily a subject for chemistry, though they are discussed at places throughout this book, inasmuch as they relate to the earth sciences and, particularly, geochemistry. Furthermore, the overall physical makeup of Earth, along with particular aspects of it, are subjects treated in much greater depth within numerous essays concerning specific topics, such as sedimentation or the biosphere.

Likewise the efficient cause, or the complex of forces that have shaped and continue to shape Earth, is treated in various places throughout this book. In particular, the specifics of Earth's origins and the study of these origins through the earth sciences are discussed in essays on aspects of historical geology, such as stratigraphy. Here the origins of Earth are considered primarily from the standpoint of the historical shift from mythological or religious explanations to scientific ones.

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