Chemical Equilibrium - Real-life applications



Chemical Equilibrium Real Life Applications 2825
Photo by: Steven Baines

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria

It should be noted that the equation used above identifies a situation of homogeneous equilibrium, in which all the substances are in the same phase or state of matter—gas, in this case. It is also possible to achieve chemical equilibrium in a reaction involving substances in more than one phase of matter.

An example of such heterogeneous equilibrium is the decomposition of calcium carbonate for the production of lime, a process that involves the application of heat. Here the equation would be written thus: CaCO 3 (s) ⇋ CaO (s) + CO 2 (g). Both the calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) and the lime (CaO) are solids, whereas the carbon dioxide produced in this reaction is a gas.

The Equilibrium Constant

In 1863, Norwegian chemists Cato Maximilian Guldberg (1836-1902) and Peter Waage (1833-1900)—who happened to be brothers-in-law—formulated what they called the law of mass action. Today, this is called the law of chemical equilibrium, which states that the direction taken by a reaction is dependant not merely on the mass of the various components of the reaction, but also upon the concentration—that is, the mass present in a given volume.

This can be expressed by the formula a A + b B ⇌ c C + d D, where the capital letters represent chemical species, and the italicized lowercase letters indicate their coefficients. The equation [C] c [D] d / [A] a [B] b yields what is called an equilibrium constant, symbolized K.

The above formula expresses the equilibrium constant in terms of molarity, the amount of solute in a given volume of solution, but in the case of gaseous reactants and products, the equilibrium constant can also be expressed in terms of partial pressures. In the reaction of water and carbon monoxide to produce hydrogen molecules and carbon dioxide (H 2 O + CO ⇋ H 2 + CO 2 ). In chemical reactions involving solids, however, the concentration of the solid—because it is considered to be invariant—does not appear in the equilibrium constant. In the reaction described earlier, in which calcium carbonate was in equilibrium with solid lime and gaseous carbon dioxide, K = pressure of CO 2 .

We will not attempt here to explore the equilibrium constant in any depth, but it is important to recognize its usefulness. For a particular reaction at a specific temperature, the ratio of concentrations between reactants and products will always have the same value—the equilibrium constant, or K. Because it is not dependant on the amounts of reactants and products mixed together initially, K remains the same: the concentrations themselves may vary, but the ratios between the concentrations in a given situation do not.

Le ChÂtelier's Principle

Not all situations of equilibrium are alike: depending on certain factors, the position of equilibrium may favor one side of the equation or the other. If a company is producing chemicals for sale, for example, its production managers will attempt to influence reactions in such a way as to favor the forward reaction. In such a situation, it is said that the equilibrium position has been shifted to the right. In terms of physical equilibrium, mentioned above, this would be analogous to what would happen if you were holding your arms out on either side of your body, with a heavy lead weight in your left hand and a much smaller weight in the right hand.

Your center of gravity, or equilibrium position, would shift to the left to account for the greater force exerted by the heavier weight.

A value of K significantly above 1 causes a shift to the right, meaning that at equilibrium, there will be more products than reactants. This is a situation favorable to a chemical company's managers, who desire to create more of the product from less of the reactants. However, nature abhors an imbalance, as expressed in Le Châtelier's principle. Named after French chemist Henri Le Châtelier (1850-1936), this principle maintains that whenever a stress or change is imposed on a chemical system in equilibrium, the system will adjust the amounts of the various substances to reduce the impact of that stress.

Suppose we add more of a particular substance to increase the rate of the forward reaction. In an equation for this reaction, the equilibrium symbol is altered, with a longer arrow pointing to the right to indicate that the forward reaction is favored. Again, the equilibrium position has shifted to the right—just as one makes physical adjustments to account for an imbalanced weight. The system responds by working to consume more of the reactant, thus adjusting to the stress that was placed on it by the addition of more of that substance. By the same token, if we were to remove a particular reactant or product, the system would shift in the direction of the detached component.

Note that Le Châtelier's principle is mathematically related to the equilibrium constant. Suppose we have a basic equilibrium equation of A + B ⇌ C, with A and B each having molarities of 1, and C a molarity of 4. This tells us that K is equal to the molarity of C divided by that of A multiplied by B = 4/(1 · 1). Suppose, now, that enough of C were added to bring its concentration up to 6. This would mean that the system was no longer at equilibrium, because C/(A · B) no longer equals 4. In order to return the ratio to 4, the numerator (C) must be decreased, while the denominator (A · B) is increased. The reaction thus shifts from right to left.

CHANGES IN VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE.

If the volume of gases in a closed container is decreased, the pressure increases. An equilibrium system will therefore shift in the direction that reduces the pressure; but if the volume is increased, thus reducing the pressure, the system will respond by shifting to increase pressure. Note, however, that not all increases in pressure lead to a shift in the equilibrium. If the pressure were increased by the addition of a noble gas, the gas itself—since these elements are noted for their lack of reactivity—would not be part of the reaction. Thus the species added would not be part of the equilibrium constant expression, and there would be no change in the equilibrium.

In any case, no change in volume alters the equilibrium constant K ; but where changes in temperature are involved, K is indeed altered. In an exothermic, or heat-producing reaction, the heat is treated as a product. Thus, when nitrogen and hydrogen react, they produce not only ammonia, but a certain quantity of heat. If this system is at equilibrium, Le Châtelier's principle shows that the addition of heat will induce a shift in equilibrium to the left—in the direction that consumes heat or energy.

The reverse is true in an endothermic, or heat-absorbing reaction. As in the process described earlier, the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate produces lime and carbon dioxide. Because heat is used to cause this reaction, the amount of heat applied is treated as a reactant, and an increase in temperature will cause the equilibrium position to shift to the right.

Equilibrium and Health

Discussions of chemical equilibrium tend to be rather abstract, as the foregoing sections on the equilibrium constant and Le Châtelier's principle illustrate. (The reader is encouraged to consult additional sources on these topics, which involve a number of particulars that have been touched upon only briefly here.) Despite the challenges involved in addressing the subject of equilibrium, the results of chemical equilibrium can be seen in processes involving human health.

The cooling of food with refrigerators, along with means of food preservation that do not involve changes in temperature, maintains chemical equilibrium in the foods and thereby prevents or at least retards spoilage. Even more important is the maintenance of equilibrium in reactions between hemoglobin and oxygen in human blood.

HEMOGLOBIN AND OXYGEN.

Hemoglobin, a protein containing iron, is the material in red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen to the cells. Each hemoglobin molecule attaches to four oxygen atoms, and the equilibrium conditions of the hemoglobin-oxygen interaction can be expressed thus: Hb (aq) + 4O 2 (g) ⇋ Hb(O 2 ) 4 (aq) , where "Hb" stands for hemoglobin. As long as there is sufficient oxygen in the air, a healthy equilibrium is maintained; but at high altitudes, considerable changes occur.

At significant elevations above sea level, the air pressure is lowered, and thus it is more difficult to obtain the oxygen one needs. The result, in accordance with Le Châtelier's principle, is a shift in equilibrium to the left, away from the oxygenated hemoglobin. Without adequate oxygen fed to the body's cells and tissues, a person tends to feel light-headed.

When someone not physically prepared for the change is exposed to high altitudes, it may be necessary to introduce pressurized oxygen from an oxygen tank. This shifts the equilibrium to the right. For people born and raised at high altitudes, however, the body's chemistry performs the equilibrium shift—by producing more hemoglobin, which also shifts equilibrium to the right.

HEMOGLOBIN AND CARBON MONOXIDE.

When someone is exposed to carbon monoxide gas, a frightening variation on the normal hemoglobin-oxygen interaction occurs. Carbon monoxide "fools" hemoglobin into mistaking it for oxygen because it also bonds to hemoglobin in groups of four, and the equilibrium expression thus becomes: Hb (aq) + 4CO (g) ⇋ Hb(CO) 4 (aq). Instead of hemoglobin, what has been produced is called carboxyhemoglobin, which is even redder than hemoglobin. Therefore, one sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is a flushed face.

The bonds between carbon monoxide and hemoglobin are about 300 times as strong as those between hemoglobin and oxygen, and this means a shift in equilibrium toward the right side of the equation—the carboxyhemoglobin side. It also means that K for the hemoglobin-carbon monoxide reaction is much higher than for the hemoglobin-oxygen reaction. Due to the affinity of hemoglobin for carbon monoxide, the hemoglobin puts a priority on carbon monoxide bonds, and hemoglobin that has bonded with carbon monoxide is no longer available to carry oxygen.

Carbon monoxide in small quantities can cause headaches and dizziness, but larger concentrations can be fatal. To reverse the effects of the carbon monoxide, pure oxygen must be introduced to the body. It will react with the carboxyhemoglobin to produce properly oxygenated hemoglobin, along with carbon monoxide: Hb(CO) 4 (aq) + 4O 2 (g) ⇋ Hb(O 2 ) 4 (aq) + 4CO (g). The gaseous carbon monoxide thus produced is dissipated when the person exhales.

WHERE TO LEARN MORE

"Catalysts" (Web site). <http://edie.cprost.sfu.ca/~rhlogan/catalyst.html> (June 9, 2001).

Challoner, Jack. The Visual Dictionary of Chemistry. New York: DK Publishing, 1996.

"Chemical Equilibrium." Davidson College Department of Chemistry (Web site). <http://www.chm.davidson.edu/ronutt/che115/EquKin.htm> (June 9, 2001).

"Chemical Equilibrium in the Gas Phase." Virginia Tech Chemistry Department (Web site). <http://www.chem.vt.edu/RVGS/ACT/notes/chem-eqm.html> (June 9, 2001).

"Chemical Sciences: Mechanism of Catalysis." University of Alberta Department of Chemistry (Web site). <http://www.chem.ualberta.ca/~plambeck/che/p102/p02174.htm> (June 9, 2001).

Ebbing, Darrell D.; R. A. D. Wentworth; and James P. Birk. Introductory Chemistry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995.

Hauser, Jill Frankel. Super Science Concoctions: 50 Mysterious Mixtures for Fabulous Fun. Charlotte, VT: Williamson Publishing, 1996.

"Mark Rosen's Chemical Equilibrium Links" (Web site). <http://users.erols.com/merosen/equilib.htm> (June 9, 2001).

Oxlade, Chris. Chemistry. Illustrated by Chris Fairclough. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1999.

Zumdahl, Steven S. Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.



Also read article about Chemical Equilibrium from Wikipedia

User Contributions:

1
Kennedy
Thank you for this awesome and in depth article! It helped so much!
2
Trang Mai
May I ask who are the publishers/authors of the information?

Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic: