Halogens - How it works



The Halogens on the Periodic Table

As noted, the halogens form Group 7 of the periodic table of elements. They are listed below, along with chemical symbol and atomic number:

  • Fluorine (F) 9
  • Chlorine (Cl): 17
  • Bromine (Br): 35
  • Iodine (I): 53
  • Astatine (At): 85

On the periodic table, as displayed in chemistry labs around the world, the number of columns and rows does not vary, since these configurations are the result of specific and interrelated properties among the elements. There are always 18 columns; however, the way in which these are labeled differs somewhat from place to place. Many chemists outside the United States refer to these as 18 different groups of elements; however, within the United States, a somewhat different system is used.

In many American versions of the chart, there are only eight groups, sometimes designated with Roman numerals. The 40 transition metals in the center are not designated by group number, nor are the lanthanides and actinides, which are set apart at the bottom of the periodic table. The remaining eight columns are the only ones assigned group numbers. In many ways, this is less useful than the system of 18 group numbers; however, it does have one advantage.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND BONDING.

In the eight-group system, group number designates the number of valence electrons. The valence electrons, which occupy the highest energy levels of an atom, are the electrons that bond one element to another. These are often referred to as the "outer shell" of an atom, though the actual structure is much more complex. In any case, electron configuration is one of the ways halogens can be defined: all have seven valence electrons.

Because the rows in the periodic table indicate increasing energy levels, energy levels rise as one moves up the list of halogens. Fluorine, on row 2, has a valence-shell configuration of 2s 2 2p 5 ; while that of chlorine is 3s 2 3p 5 . Note that only the energy level changes, but not the electron configuration at the highest energy level. The same goes for bromine (4s 2 4p 5 ), iodine (4s 2 4p 5 ), and astatine (5s 2 5p 5 ).

All members of the halogen family have the same valence-shell electron configurations, and thus tend to bond in much the same way. As we

SALT, LIKE THE MOUND SHOWN HERE, IS A SAFE AND COMMON SUBSTANCE THAT CONTAINS CHLORINE. (Charles O'Rear/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.)
S ALT , LIKE THE MOUND SHOWN HERE , IS A SAFE AND COMMON SUBSTANCE THAT CONTAINS CHLORINE .
(Charles O'Rear/Corbis
. Reproduced by permission.)
shall see, they are inclined to form bonds more readily than most other substances, and indeed fluorine is the most reactive of all elements.

Thus it is ironic that they are "next door" to the Group 8 noble gases, the least reactive among the elements. The reason for this, as discussed in the Chemical Bonding essay, is that most elements bond in such a way that they develop a valence shell of eight electrons; the noble gases are already there, so they do not bond, except in some cases—and then principally with fluorine.

Characteristics of the Halogens

In terms of the phase of matter in which they are normally found, the halogens are a varied group. Fluorine and chlorine are gases, iodine is a solid, and bromine is one of only two elements that exists at room temperature as a liquid. As for astatine, it is a solid too, but so highly radioactive that it is hard to know much about its properties.

Despite these differences, the halogens have much in common, and not just with regard to their seven valence electrons. Indeed, they were identified as a group possessing similar characteristics long before chemists had any way of knowing about electrons, let alone electron configurations. One of the first things scientists noticed about these five elements is the fact that they tend to form salts. In everyday terminology, "salt" refers only to a few variations on the same thing—table salt, sea salt, and the like. In chemistry, however, the meaning is much broader: a salt is defined as the result of bonding between an acid and a base.

Many salts are formed by the bonding of a metal and a nonmetal. The halogens are all nonmetals, and tend to form salts with metals, as in the example of sodium chloride (NaCl), a bond between chlorine, a halogen, and the metal sodium. The result, of course, is what people commonly call "salt." Due to its tendency to form salts, the first of the halogens to be isolated—chlorine, in 1811—was originally named "halogen." This is a combination of the Greek words halos , or salt, and gennan , "to form or generate."

In their pure form, halogens are diatomic, meaning that they exist as molecules with two atoms: F 2 , Cl 2 , and so on. When bonding with metals, they form ionic bonds, which are the strongest form of chemical bond. In the process, halogens become negatively charged ions, or anions. These are represented by the symbols F−, Cl−, Br−, and I−, as well as the names fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide. All of the halogens are highly reactive, and will combine directly with almost all elements.

Due to this high level of reactivity, the halogens are almost never found in pure form; rather, they have to be extracted. Extraction of halogens is doubly problematic, because they are dangerous. Exposure to large quantities can be harmful or fatal, and for this reason halogens have been used as poisons to deter unwanted plants and insects—and, in one of the most horrifying chapters of twentieth century military history, as a weapon in World War I.

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