Solutions - How it works
Mixtures
Solutions belong to the category of substances identified as mixtures, substances with variable composition. This may seem a bit confusing, since among the defining characteristics of a solution are its uniformity and consistency. But this definition of a solution involves external qualities—the things we can observe with our senses—whereas a mixture can be distinguished from a pure substance not only in terms of external characteristics, but also because of its internal and structural properties.
At one time, chemists had a hard time differentiating between mixtures and pure substances (which are either elements or compounds), primarily because they had little or no knowledge of those "internal and structural properties." Externally, a mixture and compound can be difficult to distinguish, but the "variable composition" mentioned above is a key factor. Coffee can be almost as weak as water, or so strong it seems to galvanize the throat as it goes down—yet in both cases, though its composition has varied, it is still coffee.
By contrast, if a compound is altered by the variation of just one atom in its molecular structure, it becomes something else entirely. When an oxygen atom bonds with a carbon and oxygen atom, carbon monoxide—a poisonous gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels—is turned into carbon dioxide, an essential component of the interaction between plants and animals in the natural environment.
MIXTURES VS. COMPOUNDS: THREE DISTINCTIONS.
Air (a mixture) can be distinguished from a compound, such as carbon dioxide, in three ways. First, a mixture can exist in virtually any proportions among its constituent parts, whereas a compound has a definite and constant composition. Air can be oxygen-rich or oxygen-poor, but if we vary the numbers of oxygen atoms chemically bonded to form a compound, the result is an entirely different substance.
Second, the parts of a mixture retain most of their properties when they join together, but elements—once they form a compound—lose their elemental characteristics. If pieces of carbon were floating in the air, their character would be quite
Third, a mixture can usually be created simply by the physical act of stirring items together, and/or by applying heat. Certainly this is true of many solutions, such as brewed coffee. On the other hand, a compound such as carbon dioxide can only be formed by the chemical reaction of atoms in specific proportions and at specific temperatures. Some such reactions consume heat, whereas others produce it. These interactions of heat are highly complex; on the other hand, in making coffee, heat is simply produced by an external source (the coffee maker) and transferred to the coffee in the brewing process.
HETEROGENEOUS AND HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES.
There are two basic types of mixtures. One of these occurs, for instance, when sand is added to a beaker of water: the sand sinks to the bottom, and the composition of the sand-water mixture cannot be said to be the same throughout. It is thus a heterogeneous mixture. The same is true of cold tea when table sugar (sucrose) is added to it: the sugar drifts to the bottom, and as a result, the first sip of tea from the glass is not nearly as sweet as the last.
Wood is a mixture that typically appears in heterogeneous form, a fact that can be easily confirmed by studying wood paneling. There are knots, for instance—areas where branches once grew, and where the concentrations of sap are higher. Striations of color run through the boards of paneling, indicating complex variations in the composition of the wood. Much the same is true of soil, with a given sample varying widely depending on a huge array of factors: the concentrations of sand, rock, or decayed vegetation, for instance, or the activities of earthworms and other organisms in processing the soil.
In a homogeneous mixture, by contrast, there is no difference between one area of the mixture and another. If coffee has been brewed properly, and there are no grounds at the bottom of the pot, it is homogeneous. If sweetener is added to tea while it is hot, it too should yield a homogeneous mixture.
Solutions and Solubility
Virtually all varieties of homogeneous mixtures can be classified as a solution—that is, a homogeneous mixture in which one or more substances is dissolved in another substance. If two or more substances were combined in exactly equal proportions, this would technically not be a solution; hence the distinction between solutions and the larger class of homogeneous mixtures.
A solution is made up of two parts: the solute, the substance or substances that are dissolved; and the solvent, the substance that dissolves the solute. The solvent typically determines the physical state of the solution: in other words, if the solvent is a liquid, the solution will most likely be a liquid. Likewise if the solvent is a solid such as a metal, melted at high temperatures to form a metallic solution called an alloy, then when the solution is cooled to its normal temperature, it will be solid again.
MISCIBILITY AND SOLUBILITY.
Miscibility is a term describing the relative ability of two substances to dissolve in one another. Generally, water and water-based substances have high miscibility with regard to one another, as do oil and oil-based substances. Oil and water, on the other hand (or substances based in either) have very low miscibility. The reasons for this will be discussed below.
Miscibility is a qualitative term like "fast" or "slow"; on the other hand, solubility—the maximum amount of a substance that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature—can be either qualitative or quantitative. In a general sense, the word is qualitative, referring to the property of being soluble, or able to dissolve in a solution.
At some points in this essay, "solubility" will be used in this qualitative sense; however, within the realm of chemistry, it also has a quantitative meaning. In other words, instead of involving an imprecise quality such as "fast" or "slow," solubility in this sense relates to precise quantities more along the lines of "100 MPH (160.9 km/h)." Solubility is usually expressed in grams (g) (0.0022 lb) of solute per 100 g (0.22 lb) of solvent.
OTHER QUANTITATIVE TERMS.
Another quantitative means of describing a solution is in terms of mass percent: the mass of the solute divided by the mass of the solution, and multiplied by 100%. If there are 25 g of solute in a solution of 200 g, for instance, 25 would be divided by 200 and multiplied by 100% to yield a 12.5% figure of solution composition.
Molarity also provides a quantitative means of showing the concentration of solute to solution. Whereas mass percent is, as its name indicates, a comparison of the mass of the solute to that of the solvent, molarity shows the amount of solute in a given volume of solution. This is measured in moles of solute per liter of solution, abbreviated mol/l.